Understanding which opioid users are less likely to have, or know where to get, naloxone can inform strategies that help more individuals get this opioid overdose reversal medication. This study examined whether the type of opioid one uses and risky use behaviors are associated with naloxone possession and knowledge of how to obtain it.
l
Opioids – both prescribed and illegal – vary in potency and associated risk of overdose, including oxycodone, heroin, and fentanyl. Of these, oxycodone is the least potent and is generally perceived to carry a low risk of overdose when used alone, while fentanyl is the most potent and considered to carry a high risk of overdose. Fentanyl is a synthetic opioid that is used alone or is added to other drugs, such as heroin and stimulants. People who use opioids may or may not be aware of the presence of fentanyl in the drugs they use. Whether intentional or not, fentanyl has been a major driver of mortality in the current opioid overdose crisis. Despite some variability in their risks, all people who use opioids are at an elevated risk of overdose.
Naloxone is a nasal spray or injection that rapidly reverses an opioid overdose by reversing and blocking the effects of other opioids (i.e., an opioid antagonist). Often known by its brand name “Narcan”, its widespread distribution has helped to substantially prevent mortality from overdoses. Despite recent pushes to increase naloxone possession among people who use opioids, many of these people report that they do not currently have it.
Understanding that the population of people who use opioids and can benefit from possessing naloxone can help to increase rates of naloxone possession by targeting people who may be less likely to carry it. For example, previous research has found that people who perceive themselves to be at low risk of an overdose are less likely to possess naloxone. Researchers in this study examined whether the type of opioid one uses and risky behaviors, such as having had an overdose in the past and injecting drugs, are associated with naloxone possession and knowledge of where to locate it. This research can help identify people who use opioids but are unlikely to carry naloxone or even know where to find it, which can help target intervention efforts toward them, thereby increasing rates of naloxone possession and saving even more lives from opioid overdoses.
The researchers in this study assessed whether opioid type and risky opioid use behavior is associated with naloxone possession and knowledge of where to find it. These variables were obtained from a nationwide survey that was administered to people who were entering treatment for opioid use disorder.
Surveys were administered through the Treatment Center Program in the Researched Abuse, Diversion, and Addiction-Related Surveillance System, which collects and analyzes data on drug trends in the US. The Treatment Center Program collects data from 127 rehabilitation centers across 48 states. People were offered the survey upon entering treatment for opioid use disorder in these centers between January 1 and December 31, 2022. The survey asked participants about their demographic information, history of drug use in the past month, and route of administration. The main outcomes of interest were naloxone possession and knowledge of where to find it.
These outcomes were compared between groups of participants based on type of opioid use, route of administration, and history of overdose, as self-reported in the survey. Groups based on type of opioid use included: 1) only fentanyl use, 2) only heroin use, 3) both heroin and fentanyl use, 4) heroin and fentanyl and oxycodone use, and 5) only oxycodone use. Route of administration included injection drug use in the past month or no injection drug use in the past month. History of overdose included having ever experienced an overdose or never having experienced an overdose.
For the statistical analyses, the research team ran models to compare the odds of naloxone possession and knowledge of where to find it among the groups of participants. The group reporting only oxycodone use was compared to the other 4 groups of use. The group reporting never having experienced an overdose was compared to the group reporting a history of overdose. Likewise, the group reporting no injection drug use in the past month was compared to the group reporting injection drug use in the past month. These models were adjusted for sex, age, race, highest completed level of education, and housing type. Such statistical adjustments help to isolate the effects of interest – i.e., whether type of opioid use, route of administration, and history of overdose are independently associated with naloxone possession and knowledge.
Participants needed to be at least 18 years old to be eligible to complete the survey. Surveys that appeared to have been completed carelessly or that were missing critical information were excluded from the study.
A total of 5,663 people across 48 states completed the survey. Among these, just over half were men (55%), with an average age of 37. The majority identified as White (71%) and reported that they have at least a high school education (84%). Approximately 10% reported experiencing homelessness.
More severe opioid use associated with higher rates of naloxone possession and knowledge
The percentages of people who reported that they currently possess naloxone, by drug type, were: 49% of people who reported using heroin only, 55% who reported using fentanyl only, 25% who reported using oxycodone only, 62% who reported using both heroin and fentanyl, 44% who reported using both heroin and oxycodone, 33% who reported using both fentanyl and oxycodone, and 55% who reported using all 3 types of opioids (heroin, fentanyl, and oxycodone).
The percentages of people who reported knowing where to find naloxone, by drug type, were: 64% of people who reported using heroin only, 69% who reported using fentanyl only, 36% who reported using oxycodone only, 76% who reported using both heroin and fentanyl, 58% who reported using both heroin and oxycodone, 53% who reported using both fentanyl and oxycodone, and 71% who reported using all 3 types of opioids (heroin, fentanyl, and oxycodone).
When compared to people who reported using oxycodone only, people who reported using heroin only were 3 times more likely to both currently possess and know where to find naloxone, while people who reported using fentanyl only were 4 times more likely. People who reported using both heroin and oxycodone were twice as likely to both currently possess and know where to find naloxone than those who reported using oxycodone only. People who reported using both heroin and fentanyl were 5 times more likely to both currently possess and know where to find naloxone than those who reported using oxycodone only. People who reported using both fentanyl and oxycodone were 89% more likely to know where to find naloxone than those who reported using oxycodone only, but there was no difference in the likelihood of possessing naloxone. Finally, people who reported using all 3 opioid types were 4 times more likely to both currently possess and know where to find naloxone than those who reported using oxycodone only.
Risky opioid use behavior associated with higher rates of naloxone possession and knowledge
Among those who reported ever experiencing an overdose, 59% reported that they currently possess naloxone and 77% reported that they know where to find it. In comparison, among those who reported that they have never experienced an overdose, 42% reported that they currently possess naloxone and 55% reported that they know where to find it.
When compared to people who reported that they have never experienced an overdose, people who reported that they have were twice as likely to currently possess naloxone and 2.5 times more likely to know where to find it.
Among those who reported injection drug use in the last month, 61% reported that they currently possess naloxone and 77% reported that they know where to find it. In comparison, among those who have not injected drugs in the past month, 44% reported that they currently possess naloxone and 58% reported that they know where to find it.
When compared to people who have not injected drugs in the past month, people who reported that they have injected drugs were twice as likely to both currently possess naloxone and know where to find it.
This study examined whether opioid type and risky opioid use behavior is associated with naloxone possession and knowledge of where to find it among people entering treatment for opioid use disorder. Results showed that people reporting using opioids with higher potencies and using multiple types, particularly the combination of heroin and fentanyl, were associated with higher rates and increased likelihood of naloxone possession and knowledge. Further, people with a history of overdose and those who reported injection drug use also had higher rates and an increased likelihood of naloxone possession and knowledge, when compared to those without a history of overdose and no injection drug use. Importantly, the study was conducted before naloxone became available over-the-counter so rates of naloxone possession and knowledge, overall, may be higher than observed in this study.
These findings suggest that those who are at highest risk of an opioid overdose are more likely to possess naloxone and know where to find it than those who are at a lower risk. This is in keeping with the Health Belief Model which suggests people are more likely to engage with a health intervention if they believe they are more susceptible to harm and the harm is likely to be severe. However, there remains much room for improvement regarding naloxone possession and knowledge for people entering opioid use disorder treatment, especially among those who reported using oxycodone only. This is likely due to the perception that they carry a lower risk of overdose, especially when they have come from a diverted prescription. However, deaths from overdoses involving both prescription and synthetic opioids have increased rapidly over the last decade. Accordingly, all people who use opioids of any kind are at an increased risk of overdose and could benefit from possessing naloxone.
The low rates of naloxone possession and knowledge among this high-risk population of people entering treatment for opioid use disorder highlight the need for improved efforts to increase these rates, especially among people who perceive their opioid use to be lower risk. Some strategies are beginning to be developed, such as co-prescribing naloxone and opioids and paying peers to distribute naloxone in their communities. These have demonstrated effectiveness in increasing rates of naloxone possession, the overall availability of naloxone within communities, and are cost-effective, but are still not widely implemented. Scaling up such strategies can further increase rates of naloxone possession and knowledge, thereby preventing more deaths from opioid overdoses.
People entering treatment for opioid use disorder were more likely to possess naloxone and know where to find it when they had more severe and riskier opioid use, such as using opioids with higher potencies or multiple types of opioids, particularly heroin and fentanyl, as well as injection use. However, there remained room for improved naloxone distribution in the entire sample, highlighting the need for enhanced efforts to increase these rates.
Bredenberg, E., Olsen, H., Ladka, M., Beekman, K., Black, J. C., Ellis, M. S., & Monte, A. A. (2025). People entering opioid substance use treatment have low rates of naloxone knowledge and possession. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 271. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2025.112645.
l
Opioids – both prescribed and illegal – vary in potency and associated risk of overdose, including oxycodone, heroin, and fentanyl. Of these, oxycodone is the least potent and is generally perceived to carry a low risk of overdose when used alone, while fentanyl is the most potent and considered to carry a high risk of overdose. Fentanyl is a synthetic opioid that is used alone or is added to other drugs, such as heroin and stimulants. People who use opioids may or may not be aware of the presence of fentanyl in the drugs they use. Whether intentional or not, fentanyl has been a major driver of mortality in the current opioid overdose crisis. Despite some variability in their risks, all people who use opioids are at an elevated risk of overdose.
Naloxone is a nasal spray or injection that rapidly reverses an opioid overdose by reversing and blocking the effects of other opioids (i.e., an opioid antagonist). Often known by its brand name “Narcan”, its widespread distribution has helped to substantially prevent mortality from overdoses. Despite recent pushes to increase naloxone possession among people who use opioids, many of these people report that they do not currently have it.
Understanding that the population of people who use opioids and can benefit from possessing naloxone can help to increase rates of naloxone possession by targeting people who may be less likely to carry it. For example, previous research has found that people who perceive themselves to be at low risk of an overdose are less likely to possess naloxone. Researchers in this study examined whether the type of opioid one uses and risky behaviors, such as having had an overdose in the past and injecting drugs, are associated with naloxone possession and knowledge of where to locate it. This research can help identify people who use opioids but are unlikely to carry naloxone or even know where to find it, which can help target intervention efforts toward them, thereby increasing rates of naloxone possession and saving even more lives from opioid overdoses.
The researchers in this study assessed whether opioid type and risky opioid use behavior is associated with naloxone possession and knowledge of where to find it. These variables were obtained from a nationwide survey that was administered to people who were entering treatment for opioid use disorder.
Surveys were administered through the Treatment Center Program in the Researched Abuse, Diversion, and Addiction-Related Surveillance System, which collects and analyzes data on drug trends in the US. The Treatment Center Program collects data from 127 rehabilitation centers across 48 states. People were offered the survey upon entering treatment for opioid use disorder in these centers between January 1 and December 31, 2022. The survey asked participants about their demographic information, history of drug use in the past month, and route of administration. The main outcomes of interest were naloxone possession and knowledge of where to find it.
These outcomes were compared between groups of participants based on type of opioid use, route of administration, and history of overdose, as self-reported in the survey. Groups based on type of opioid use included: 1) only fentanyl use, 2) only heroin use, 3) both heroin and fentanyl use, 4) heroin and fentanyl and oxycodone use, and 5) only oxycodone use. Route of administration included injection drug use in the past month or no injection drug use in the past month. History of overdose included having ever experienced an overdose or never having experienced an overdose.
For the statistical analyses, the research team ran models to compare the odds of naloxone possession and knowledge of where to find it among the groups of participants. The group reporting only oxycodone use was compared to the other 4 groups of use. The group reporting never having experienced an overdose was compared to the group reporting a history of overdose. Likewise, the group reporting no injection drug use in the past month was compared to the group reporting injection drug use in the past month. These models were adjusted for sex, age, race, highest completed level of education, and housing type. Such statistical adjustments help to isolate the effects of interest – i.e., whether type of opioid use, route of administration, and history of overdose are independently associated with naloxone possession and knowledge.
Participants needed to be at least 18 years old to be eligible to complete the survey. Surveys that appeared to have been completed carelessly or that were missing critical information were excluded from the study.
A total of 5,663 people across 48 states completed the survey. Among these, just over half were men (55%), with an average age of 37. The majority identified as White (71%) and reported that they have at least a high school education (84%). Approximately 10% reported experiencing homelessness.
More severe opioid use associated with higher rates of naloxone possession and knowledge
The percentages of people who reported that they currently possess naloxone, by drug type, were: 49% of people who reported using heroin only, 55% who reported using fentanyl only, 25% who reported using oxycodone only, 62% who reported using both heroin and fentanyl, 44% who reported using both heroin and oxycodone, 33% who reported using both fentanyl and oxycodone, and 55% who reported using all 3 types of opioids (heroin, fentanyl, and oxycodone).
The percentages of people who reported knowing where to find naloxone, by drug type, were: 64% of people who reported using heroin only, 69% who reported using fentanyl only, 36% who reported using oxycodone only, 76% who reported using both heroin and fentanyl, 58% who reported using both heroin and oxycodone, 53% who reported using both fentanyl and oxycodone, and 71% who reported using all 3 types of opioids (heroin, fentanyl, and oxycodone).
When compared to people who reported using oxycodone only, people who reported using heroin only were 3 times more likely to both currently possess and know where to find naloxone, while people who reported using fentanyl only were 4 times more likely. People who reported using both heroin and oxycodone were twice as likely to both currently possess and know where to find naloxone than those who reported using oxycodone only. People who reported using both heroin and fentanyl were 5 times more likely to both currently possess and know where to find naloxone than those who reported using oxycodone only. People who reported using both fentanyl and oxycodone were 89% more likely to know where to find naloxone than those who reported using oxycodone only, but there was no difference in the likelihood of possessing naloxone. Finally, people who reported using all 3 opioid types were 4 times more likely to both currently possess and know where to find naloxone than those who reported using oxycodone only.
Risky opioid use behavior associated with higher rates of naloxone possession and knowledge
Among those who reported ever experiencing an overdose, 59% reported that they currently possess naloxone and 77% reported that they know where to find it. In comparison, among those who reported that they have never experienced an overdose, 42% reported that they currently possess naloxone and 55% reported that they know where to find it.
When compared to people who reported that they have never experienced an overdose, people who reported that they have were twice as likely to currently possess naloxone and 2.5 times more likely to know where to find it.
Among those who reported injection drug use in the last month, 61% reported that they currently possess naloxone and 77% reported that they know where to find it. In comparison, among those who have not injected drugs in the past month, 44% reported that they currently possess naloxone and 58% reported that they know where to find it.
When compared to people who have not injected drugs in the past month, people who reported that they have injected drugs were twice as likely to both currently possess naloxone and know where to find it.
This study examined whether opioid type and risky opioid use behavior is associated with naloxone possession and knowledge of where to find it among people entering treatment for opioid use disorder. Results showed that people reporting using opioids with higher potencies and using multiple types, particularly the combination of heroin and fentanyl, were associated with higher rates and increased likelihood of naloxone possession and knowledge. Further, people with a history of overdose and those who reported injection drug use also had higher rates and an increased likelihood of naloxone possession and knowledge, when compared to those without a history of overdose and no injection drug use. Importantly, the study was conducted before naloxone became available over-the-counter so rates of naloxone possession and knowledge, overall, may be higher than observed in this study.
These findings suggest that those who are at highest risk of an opioid overdose are more likely to possess naloxone and know where to find it than those who are at a lower risk. This is in keeping with the Health Belief Model which suggests people are more likely to engage with a health intervention if they believe they are more susceptible to harm and the harm is likely to be severe. However, there remains much room for improvement regarding naloxone possession and knowledge for people entering opioid use disorder treatment, especially among those who reported using oxycodone only. This is likely due to the perception that they carry a lower risk of overdose, especially when they have come from a diverted prescription. However, deaths from overdoses involving both prescription and synthetic opioids have increased rapidly over the last decade. Accordingly, all people who use opioids of any kind are at an increased risk of overdose and could benefit from possessing naloxone.
The low rates of naloxone possession and knowledge among this high-risk population of people entering treatment for opioid use disorder highlight the need for improved efforts to increase these rates, especially among people who perceive their opioid use to be lower risk. Some strategies are beginning to be developed, such as co-prescribing naloxone and opioids and paying peers to distribute naloxone in their communities. These have demonstrated effectiveness in increasing rates of naloxone possession, the overall availability of naloxone within communities, and are cost-effective, but are still not widely implemented. Scaling up such strategies can further increase rates of naloxone possession and knowledge, thereby preventing more deaths from opioid overdoses.
People entering treatment for opioid use disorder were more likely to possess naloxone and know where to find it when they had more severe and riskier opioid use, such as using opioids with higher potencies or multiple types of opioids, particularly heroin and fentanyl, as well as injection use. However, there remained room for improved naloxone distribution in the entire sample, highlighting the need for enhanced efforts to increase these rates.
Bredenberg, E., Olsen, H., Ladka, M., Beekman, K., Black, J. C., Ellis, M. S., & Monte, A. A. (2025). People entering opioid substance use treatment have low rates of naloxone knowledge and possession. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 271. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2025.112645.
l
Opioids – both prescribed and illegal – vary in potency and associated risk of overdose, including oxycodone, heroin, and fentanyl. Of these, oxycodone is the least potent and is generally perceived to carry a low risk of overdose when used alone, while fentanyl is the most potent and considered to carry a high risk of overdose. Fentanyl is a synthetic opioid that is used alone or is added to other drugs, such as heroin and stimulants. People who use opioids may or may not be aware of the presence of fentanyl in the drugs they use. Whether intentional or not, fentanyl has been a major driver of mortality in the current opioid overdose crisis. Despite some variability in their risks, all people who use opioids are at an elevated risk of overdose.
Naloxone is a nasal spray or injection that rapidly reverses an opioid overdose by reversing and blocking the effects of other opioids (i.e., an opioid antagonist). Often known by its brand name “Narcan”, its widespread distribution has helped to substantially prevent mortality from overdoses. Despite recent pushes to increase naloxone possession among people who use opioids, many of these people report that they do not currently have it.
Understanding that the population of people who use opioids and can benefit from possessing naloxone can help to increase rates of naloxone possession by targeting people who may be less likely to carry it. For example, previous research has found that people who perceive themselves to be at low risk of an overdose are less likely to possess naloxone. Researchers in this study examined whether the type of opioid one uses and risky behaviors, such as having had an overdose in the past and injecting drugs, are associated with naloxone possession and knowledge of where to locate it. This research can help identify people who use opioids but are unlikely to carry naloxone or even know where to find it, which can help target intervention efforts toward them, thereby increasing rates of naloxone possession and saving even more lives from opioid overdoses.
The researchers in this study assessed whether opioid type and risky opioid use behavior is associated with naloxone possession and knowledge of where to find it. These variables were obtained from a nationwide survey that was administered to people who were entering treatment for opioid use disorder.
Surveys were administered through the Treatment Center Program in the Researched Abuse, Diversion, and Addiction-Related Surveillance System, which collects and analyzes data on drug trends in the US. The Treatment Center Program collects data from 127 rehabilitation centers across 48 states. People were offered the survey upon entering treatment for opioid use disorder in these centers between January 1 and December 31, 2022. The survey asked participants about their demographic information, history of drug use in the past month, and route of administration. The main outcomes of interest were naloxone possession and knowledge of where to find it.
These outcomes were compared between groups of participants based on type of opioid use, route of administration, and history of overdose, as self-reported in the survey. Groups based on type of opioid use included: 1) only fentanyl use, 2) only heroin use, 3) both heroin and fentanyl use, 4) heroin and fentanyl and oxycodone use, and 5) only oxycodone use. Route of administration included injection drug use in the past month or no injection drug use in the past month. History of overdose included having ever experienced an overdose or never having experienced an overdose.
For the statistical analyses, the research team ran models to compare the odds of naloxone possession and knowledge of where to find it among the groups of participants. The group reporting only oxycodone use was compared to the other 4 groups of use. The group reporting never having experienced an overdose was compared to the group reporting a history of overdose. Likewise, the group reporting no injection drug use in the past month was compared to the group reporting injection drug use in the past month. These models were adjusted for sex, age, race, highest completed level of education, and housing type. Such statistical adjustments help to isolate the effects of interest – i.e., whether type of opioid use, route of administration, and history of overdose are independently associated with naloxone possession and knowledge.
Participants needed to be at least 18 years old to be eligible to complete the survey. Surveys that appeared to have been completed carelessly or that were missing critical information were excluded from the study.
A total of 5,663 people across 48 states completed the survey. Among these, just over half were men (55%), with an average age of 37. The majority identified as White (71%) and reported that they have at least a high school education (84%). Approximately 10% reported experiencing homelessness.
More severe opioid use associated with higher rates of naloxone possession and knowledge
The percentages of people who reported that they currently possess naloxone, by drug type, were: 49% of people who reported using heroin only, 55% who reported using fentanyl only, 25% who reported using oxycodone only, 62% who reported using both heroin and fentanyl, 44% who reported using both heroin and oxycodone, 33% who reported using both fentanyl and oxycodone, and 55% who reported using all 3 types of opioids (heroin, fentanyl, and oxycodone).
The percentages of people who reported knowing where to find naloxone, by drug type, were: 64% of people who reported using heroin only, 69% who reported using fentanyl only, 36% who reported using oxycodone only, 76% who reported using both heroin and fentanyl, 58% who reported using both heroin and oxycodone, 53% who reported using both fentanyl and oxycodone, and 71% who reported using all 3 types of opioids (heroin, fentanyl, and oxycodone).
When compared to people who reported using oxycodone only, people who reported using heroin only were 3 times more likely to both currently possess and know where to find naloxone, while people who reported using fentanyl only were 4 times more likely. People who reported using both heroin and oxycodone were twice as likely to both currently possess and know where to find naloxone than those who reported using oxycodone only. People who reported using both heroin and fentanyl were 5 times more likely to both currently possess and know where to find naloxone than those who reported using oxycodone only. People who reported using both fentanyl and oxycodone were 89% more likely to know where to find naloxone than those who reported using oxycodone only, but there was no difference in the likelihood of possessing naloxone. Finally, people who reported using all 3 opioid types were 4 times more likely to both currently possess and know where to find naloxone than those who reported using oxycodone only.
Risky opioid use behavior associated with higher rates of naloxone possession and knowledge
Among those who reported ever experiencing an overdose, 59% reported that they currently possess naloxone and 77% reported that they know where to find it. In comparison, among those who reported that they have never experienced an overdose, 42% reported that they currently possess naloxone and 55% reported that they know where to find it.
When compared to people who reported that they have never experienced an overdose, people who reported that they have were twice as likely to currently possess naloxone and 2.5 times more likely to know where to find it.
Among those who reported injection drug use in the last month, 61% reported that they currently possess naloxone and 77% reported that they know where to find it. In comparison, among those who have not injected drugs in the past month, 44% reported that they currently possess naloxone and 58% reported that they know where to find it.
When compared to people who have not injected drugs in the past month, people who reported that they have injected drugs were twice as likely to both currently possess naloxone and know where to find it.
This study examined whether opioid type and risky opioid use behavior is associated with naloxone possession and knowledge of where to find it among people entering treatment for opioid use disorder. Results showed that people reporting using opioids with higher potencies and using multiple types, particularly the combination of heroin and fentanyl, were associated with higher rates and increased likelihood of naloxone possession and knowledge. Further, people with a history of overdose and those who reported injection drug use also had higher rates and an increased likelihood of naloxone possession and knowledge, when compared to those without a history of overdose and no injection drug use. Importantly, the study was conducted before naloxone became available over-the-counter so rates of naloxone possession and knowledge, overall, may be higher than observed in this study.
These findings suggest that those who are at highest risk of an opioid overdose are more likely to possess naloxone and know where to find it than those who are at a lower risk. This is in keeping with the Health Belief Model which suggests people are more likely to engage with a health intervention if they believe they are more susceptible to harm and the harm is likely to be severe. However, there remains much room for improvement regarding naloxone possession and knowledge for people entering opioid use disorder treatment, especially among those who reported using oxycodone only. This is likely due to the perception that they carry a lower risk of overdose, especially when they have come from a diverted prescription. However, deaths from overdoses involving both prescription and synthetic opioids have increased rapidly over the last decade. Accordingly, all people who use opioids of any kind are at an increased risk of overdose and could benefit from possessing naloxone.
The low rates of naloxone possession and knowledge among this high-risk population of people entering treatment for opioid use disorder highlight the need for improved efforts to increase these rates, especially among people who perceive their opioid use to be lower risk. Some strategies are beginning to be developed, such as co-prescribing naloxone and opioids and paying peers to distribute naloxone in their communities. These have demonstrated effectiveness in increasing rates of naloxone possession, the overall availability of naloxone within communities, and are cost-effective, but are still not widely implemented. Scaling up such strategies can further increase rates of naloxone possession and knowledge, thereby preventing more deaths from opioid overdoses.
People entering treatment for opioid use disorder were more likely to possess naloxone and know where to find it when they had more severe and riskier opioid use, such as using opioids with higher potencies or multiple types of opioids, particularly heroin and fentanyl, as well as injection use. However, there remained room for improved naloxone distribution in the entire sample, highlighting the need for enhanced efforts to increase these rates.
Bredenberg, E., Olsen, H., Ladka, M., Beekman, K., Black, J. C., Ellis, M. S., & Monte, A. A. (2025). People entering opioid substance use treatment have low rates of naloxone knowledge and possession. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 271. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2025.112645.
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